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Dominant/Predominant

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May/Might/Can/Could

bernadenedavis — Sat, 06 Dec 2008 19:00:22 CST

By Chris McVey and Bernadene Davis

Did you ask your teacher, "Can I go to the bathroom?" when you were younger? If your teacher was like mine, she quickly corrected you by saying, "It is may I, not can I." I repeated the question, "May I go to the bathroom" and then ran down the hall to avoid an elementary school accident. She gave me no explanation for why I was to use may instead of can. My lesson was concluded until the next time I had to use the restroom, when I would either succeed or fail in making the appropriate request.

Meanings and Usage of Can/Could and May/Might

Can/Could

Can is an auxiliary verb that means "the ability to do something" (Clark & Clark, 2001, p. 219). Sabin (2001) defines it as "ability or power" ( p.299). It traditionally applies to physical or mental ability. The Chicago Manual of Style (2003) illustrates this in the following examples: "She can do calculation in her head" and "The dog can jump over a six-foot fence" (p. 204).

Could is an auxiliary verb that is the past tense of can, but it can also refer to time in the present or future. In the book The Grammar Bible, Strumpf (2004) shows the various ways could is used:
Past tense of can--"You could have called me last night" (p. 80).
Ability to complete an action--"She could be here as early as eight o'clock this evening" (p. 78).
Possibility of an event--"This could be the greatest night of my life" (p. 79).
Time in the present --"That guy could be your brother" (p. 80).

May/Might

May is an auxiliary verb that means "to express permission or possibility" (Clark & Clark, 2001, p. 219). The following sentences show this usage:
"You may send the customer a sample package of greeting cards." [Permission.]
"She may still be sick with a cold." [Possibility.]
Ebbit and Ebbit (1977) point out that may is more formal when used in asking permission:
"The Board adhered to the view that an employer...may not lawfully refuse recognition (Howard Lesnick, Michigan Law Review)" (p. 55).

Might is an auxiliary verb that is the past tense of may--"Susan might have left her scarf at the restaurant last night."
Sabin (2001) reminds us that may is used for present and might is used for past when we need to maintain sequence of tenses as can be seen in the next two sentences.
"I think (present) that I may go to Australia next winter."
"I thought (past) that I might go to Australia next winter" (p.300).

Might is also used in the present tense and expresses a greater degree of uncertainty than may. The following sentences from The Chicago Manual of Style (2003) demonstrate the difference:
"We might win the lottery." [Greater uncertainty.]
"We may be delayed." [Lesser uncertainty.]
"The jeweler might have given me the wrong diamond." [Greater uncertainty.]
"The jeweler may have forgotten to call" (p. 181). [Lesser uncertainty.]

Sabin (2001) also shows that may and might can convey different meanings than just tense in the following examples:
"The CFO's reorganization plan may have saved the company from bankruptcy. (Other factors may have contributed to the outcome, but the company is still a going concern)."
"The CFO's reorganization plan might have saved the company from bankruptcy. (However, the CFO's plan was not implemented, and the company did fail)" (p. 300).
Use might if the outcome of the action or event is known, or the matter was not tested and therefore the event never occurred. Use may when there is still uncertainty of the outcome (Oxford University Press, 2001, p. 1000).

The use of the words may/might and can/could changes depending on what is being said or written. The most important thing to remember when using can or could in a statement is that both words apply to a person's mental or physical ability, i.e., competence in starting and/or ending a task. When we use the words may and might in a statement, we must remember that both of these words apply to the permission/ authorization or possibility that is granted to the person making the statement.

The greatest confusion in using can and may is in the aspect of asking questions concerning permission and ability as described in the introductory paragraph. Below we will look at how that confusion might come up in our writing and what we can do to avoid it.

Asking Questions Using Can/Could and May/Might

According to Fogarty (2008) the restroom request incident detailed above is known as the "Can-Can Dance" and is a technicality in modern day English usage. She says, "Technically, can is used to ask if something is possible, and may is used to ask if something is permissible ... substituting can for may is done so commonly it can hardly be considered wrong. This is what I call a cover letter grammar topic--use may when you are in formal situations or want to be especially proper, but don't get too hung up about it in everyday life" (p. 20).

Correct Usage When Asking Questions

Requesting Permission

May I go to the bathroom?
Can I go out dancing with my friends? (This would be an example of Fogarty's use of can for permission instead of ability.)
Could you look over my paper before I send it off to my instructor?
Might I trouble you for the time? (Receiving permission to complete the action of the verb) (Strumpf & Douglas, 2004, p. 78).

In the first two questions above, the pronoun "I" is making a request for an outside agent to give the "I" permission to do something. In both instances the "I" has the ability to do the action but requests permission to complete it. In the second two questions, the pronoun "I" is also requesting permission or consent; however this time the consent is coming from an active agent, the "you" in the sentence (Lebrun, 1965, p. 17).

Mental Ability

Can you solve the extra credit problems Professor Smith assigned for the calc. test on Wednesday?
Could I beat the reigning chess champion at a game of chess if given the chance?

Physical Ability

When I was in high school track, my coach asked me, "Can you clear a high hurdle?"
What songs can you play on the guitar?

Possibility

Can you leave for Jamaica in March instead of April?

Incorrect Usage When Asking Questions

Physical Ability

Could Cameron run the 50-meter dash with a cast on his leg? (This question is not only asking about Cameron's physical ability to run, but also whether there is a possibility that Cameron is able to do it.)

Mental Ability and Possibility

May I translate this passage into Spanish in my head? (This question is incorrect in its current format because may is confused with requesting permission as well as the possibility of the translation.)

Conclusion

The verbs may/might and can/could can be confusing if you do not have rules to follow in your writing or speaking. You may use can when asking to use the restroom, or you might use could when making a statement. We must remember that there are guidelines when requesting permission or stating consent, when questioning or stating competency of physical or mental abilities, and when questioning or stating possibility in context of time and condition.

References

Clark, J., & Clark, L. (2001). How 9: A handbook for office workers 9e. Cincinnati: South-Western College Publishing.

Ebbitt, W., & Ebbitt, D. (1977). Perrin’s index to English (6th ed.). Glenview, Ill: Scott, Foresman, and Company.

Fogarty, M. (2008). Grammar girl’s quick and dirty tips for better writing. New York: Henry Holt and Company, LLC.

Lebrun, Y. (1965). Can & may: in present-day English. Bruxelles: Presses Universitaires de Bruxelles.

Sabin, W. (2001). The Gregg reference manual (9th ed.). New York: Glencoe McGraw-Hill.

Strumpf, M., & Douglas, A. (2004). The grammar bible. New York: Henry Holt and Company, LLC.

Oxford University Press. (2001). The Oxford American desk dictionary and thesaurus (2nd ed.). New York: The Berkley

Publishing Group.

The Chicago manual of style: The essential guide for writers, editors, and publishers (15th ed.). (2003).

Chicago: The University of Chicago Press.

Farther/Further

jennycmcb — Sat, 06 Dec 2008 17:23:55 CST

When to use Farther and Further
Devin Erickson & Jenny McBride

Why the Confusion?
"Is it the further you get in your trip, the farther you get in your book, or the other way around?" (The American Heritage Book of English Usage, 1996). Troyka says that though many might think these words are interchangeable, you should take some time to choose the most accurate word, if you want to ensure that you are communicating clearly and precisely. "Most authorities have observed that this distinction [between farther and further] has either disappeared or is about to," but that "careful writers still observe the differences" (The New York Public Library Writer's Guide to Style and Usage, 1994, p. 64).

How to Make the Best Choice with Examples
Sabin says that farther refers to actual physical distance and further refers to figurative distance, when describing non-geographic situations such as time or degree. Farther was originally used to describe a distance that could be measured. Further originally meant, "in addition to" or "moreover." Therefore, if you are describing or comparing something that has a physical distance from some other object, use farther. Otherwise, use further to describe the relative, yet un-measureable, difference between the two objects in question.

Examples of how to use further correctly:

How much further will John take this issue?
Emily decided to investigate the matter further.
Upon further consideration, I won't accept the new position.

Examples of how to use farther correctly:

Caldwell is farther from Boise than Nampa.
They journeyed farther the second day than the first.
How much farther do you think we should go?

Works Cited
The American Heritage Book of English Usage. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1996. Retrieved Nov. 5, 2008 from www.bartleby.com/64.
Ebbitt, W., & Ebbitt, D. (1977). Perrin's index to English (6th ed.). Glenview, III: Scott, Foresman, and Company.
Fogarty, M. (2008). Grammar girl's quick and dirty tips for better writing. New York: Henry Holt and Company, LLC.
The New York Public Library Writer's Guide to Style and Usage. New York: Harper Collins, 1994.
Sabin, W. (2001). The Gregg Reference Manual (9th ed.). New York: Glencoe McGraw-Hill.
Troyka, L. (2001). Simon & Schuster quick access reference for writers (3rd ed.). Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall Inc.

Me/Myself/Oneself

jennycmcb — Sat, 06 Dec 2008 16:03:37 CST

By Jenny McBride

Many writers are so afraid of improperly using me in a sentence that they overcorrect or avoid using it at all. Writers often misuse I or myself instead because they are nervous about using me. For example, each of the following sentences uses either I or myself where me is actually appropriate:

The contract had to be signed by both Dr. Willerton and I.
Let's keep this little secret between you and I.

The correct way to write these sentences is:

The contract had to be signed by both Dr. Willerton and me.
Let's keep this little secret between you and me.

Traditional grammar rules say that "the first person singular pronoun is I when it is a subject and me when it is an object," but few of us understand what that means. In the two examples above, the noun/pronoun compound is functioning as an object, so the correct pronoun choice would be me instead of I (Kolln 258). Kolln says that this common error may possibly be "because people remember being corrected by their parents or teachers when they said such sentences as

Me and Bill are going for a bike ride. ('No, dear. Bill and I.')
Bill and me are going to be late. ('No, dear. Bill and I.')"

She believes this may be why some people find it difficult to use me, regardless of the function the pronoun has in the sentence. Dr. Grammar says to "use myself only when you have used I earlier in the same sentence." For example, it would be correct to say or write:

I do not particularly care for seafood myself.

Because I has not been used earlier in the following sentences, it would be incorrect to say or write:

It is very frustrating not only to myself, but also my classmates.
"Please visit Aardvark and myself" (Fogarty 207).

The Chicago Manual of Style says to use me when you need the first person. "It's not immodest to use it; it's superstitious not to" (Chicago 5.202). It also suggests using it reflexively:

"I did myself a favor."

Or emphatically:

"I myself have tried to get through that tome!"

Oneself is a compound indefinite pronoun. Indefinite pronouns generally or indefinitely represent an object. Usually, it is an object that has already been identified or doesn't even need specific identification. In this case, oneself means one's self and is singular (Chicago 5.64). Merriam-Webster says that it can be used reflexively as an object of a preposition or verb, or for emphasis. This means that oneself is preceded by the noun or pronoun that it refers to in a sentence. For example:

One can always imagine oneself somewhere else.
One seldom sees oneself as one truly is.

This may be one of the trickiest pronouns to use. Oneself can imply a relationship between subject and object, as in "one sees oneself" or, in the examples above, oneself could refer to anyone.

Works Cited

The Chicago Manual of Style: The Essential Guide for Writers, Editors, and Publishers. 15th ed. Chicago: U of Chicago P, 2003.
Choy, Penelope, and Dorthy Goldbart Clark. Basic Grammar and Usage. Boston: Thomson/Wadsworth, 2006.
Dr. Grammar: Your Rx for Writing Ills. 2001. Dept. of English., University of Northern Iowa. 5 Nov. 2008. <http://www.
drgrammar.org/faqs/#34>
Fogarty, Mignon. Grammar Girl's Quick and Dirty Tips for Better Writing. New York: Holt, 2008.
Kolln, Martha. Rhetorical Grammar: Grammatical Choices, Rhetorical Effects. 5th ed. New York: Pearson, 2007.
"oneself." Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary. 2008. Merriam-Webster Online. 5 Nov. 2008. <http://www.merriam-
webster.com/dictionary/oneself>

That as an Expletive

crigby — Wed, 05 Nov 2008 21:37:05 CST

by Maria Wood and Carley Rigby

When to Omit That

Good writing is concise. In order to be concise, a sentence should contain no unnecessary words. However, it can be difficult to determine whether a word is necessary or not. For example, it is hard to know when the word that as an expletive conjunction should be omitted. To make this decision, it helps to first understand the function of that as an expletive conjunction and its history.

An expletive conjunction is a word that carries no meaning, but serves the grammatical function of introducing noun clauses in a sentence (a noun clause contains a subject and verb). Expletive conjunctions are often categorized as subordinating conjunctions. They function similarly too, and probably originated from, relative pronouns (e.g., “I know that the car is blue”). Beginning as a stressed demonstrative, that referred to the statement previously made. An example would be “I know that,” in which that could refer to the previous statement “The car is blue.” Over time that turned into an unstressed conjunction joining the two phrases together: “I know that the car is blue” (House & Harman, 1951, p. 193).

The question remains, how do we determine whether that is essential to a sentence or not? Strunk (2000) instructs, “The ear, for example, must decide when to omit that from a sentence, when to retain it” (p. 78). But hearing is not the only way to judge correct usage of that. Patricia T. O'Conner (2003) writes, "Some writers and editors believe that if that can logically follow a verb, it should be there. Others believe that if that can logically be omitted, it should be taken out." (p. 69) O'Connor also points out if a writer does not like that, to simply take it out. But, if the writer likes that, leave it in. Simply, what both authors are saying is that ultimately it is up to the writer to choose whether that is necessary or not. Some simple guidelines and examples are outlined below.

That should be omitted when:
“The noun clause that it introduces is the direct object” (House & Harman, 1951, p. 193).
Example: I know that she likes cars.

That should be kept when:
The meaning of the sentence depends on the use of that.
Example: "He felt that his big nose, which was sunburned, made him look ridiculous." Omit the that and you have "He felt his big nose. . . " (Strunk, 2000)

Examples

Use of that when it is necessary:

"Here is a picture of the plane that I own." (Sabin, 2001)

"She is the candidate that I prefer." (Sabin, 2001)

Sources

House, H.C. & Harman, S.E. (1950). Descriptive english grammar . Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, Inc.

O'Conner, P. (2003). Woe is I. G.P. New York, NY: G.P. Putnam's Sons.

Sabin, W. (2001). The gregg reference manual, ninth edition. New York, Ny: McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

Strunk, W. (2000). The elements of style, fourth edition. Needham Heights, MA: Allyn & Bacon.

Assure/Ensure/Insure

bernadenedavis — Wed, 05 Nov 2008 19:12:17 CST

By Amy Messenger and Bernadene Davis

Confusion with Assure, Ensure, and Insure

The verbs assure, ensure, and insure all have the same general meaning of "to make sure" (Fogarty, 2008, p. 13). However, each word varies in the context in which they are supposed to be used.

Correct Usage

Assure is used in context with a person, a group of people, or an animal. Assure means "to give confidence", according to Sabin, which is why it can only be used with things that are alive. They can feel doubt or anxiety (2001, p. 291). Troyka supports this idea with the meaning "promise, convince" (2001, p. 81).

Note the difference in meaning in British English: assure can mean "to insure against loss" (Fogarty, 2008, p. 13).

Ensure is used in context to guarantee an event or condition (Fogarty, 2008, p. 13). Remember that ensure has two e's; guarantee also has two e's. It generally means to make sure something will or will not happen, as is pointed out in The Chicago Manual of Style (2003, p. 213).

Insure is used in context with a person place or thing but is commonly reserved for financial insurance. It means to protect against financial loss. (Clark & Clark, 2001, p. 216).

Examples

Assure:

Please assure the patient that this procedure is not painful.

I assure you that the fish is fresh.

I assured my friend that her white pants did not make her look fat.

Ensure:

He must ensure that the effect is eye-popping.

Please ensure that there are clean towels in all the bathrooms.

We will have plenty of food at the dinner to ensure that no one goes hungry.

Insure:

I want to insure this necklace for $5,000.

The company insures all of our bicycles against theft.

We insured our property against fire damage.

Combination Example

This example sentence from Troyka (2001) demonstrates the usage of all three verbs:

"The agent assured me that he could insure my roller blades but that only I could ensure that my elbows and knees would outlast my skates" (p. 81).

References

Clark, J., & Clark, L. (2001). How 9: A handbook for office workers 9e. Cincinnati: South-Western College Publishing.

The Chicago manual of style: The essential guide for writers, editors, and publishers (15th ed.). (2003).
Chicago: The University of Chicago Press.

Fogarty, M. (2008). Grammar girl’s quick and dirty tips for better writing. New York: Henry Holt and Company, LLC.

Sabin, W. (2001). The Gregg reference manual (9th ed.). New York: Glencoe McGraw-Hill.

Troyka, L. (2001). Simon & Schuster quick access reference for writers (3rd ed.). Upper Saddle River,
New Jersey: Prentice-Hall Inc.

I Think/I Feel

chrismcvey2009 — Wed, 05 Nov 2008 19:10:52 CST

By: Leah Ellison and Chris McVey

Confusion Regarding Think and Feel

To truly get at the root of the confusion between think/feel and how they are often interchanged incorrectly, we must first discuss the word believe.
All grimy grammar goblins will agree that a belief is an opinion. When you state a belief, or agree on a set of beliefs, you are choosing which side of the line in the sand you will stand on.
Now, the confusion comes when you state your opinion as your thoughts or feelings.

Some say that feel/think/believe are interchangeable.(Bartleby.com), but wise wordsmiths (myself included) disagree. They argue that interchanging feel/think/believe cause unclear sentences and foggy meaning (Everything2.com).
In other words, the usage is imprecise, and as fledgling wise wordsmiths we would like our content to be as clear and sunny as possible.
Wise wordsmiths write what they mean and mean what they write. According to The Chicago Manual of Style, "feel is a weak verb when used as a substitute for think or believe" (5.202., 214). Feelings are physical sensations or emotions, thinking is a logical mental process. They are not the same.

Correct Use

The facts are these:

Use feel to describe physical sensations and emotions.

Example: The water feels cold to me.

I feel the soft fuzzy bunny.

I feel terribly horribly guilty that my son broke his leg while I was in class. (Really, I do.)

These examples work because you can feel the sensations of cold, softness, and guilt.

Don't use feel like this.

"I feel Washington fat cats are a threat."

Do you feel Washington fat cats? Not really because you can't touch them, and if you could they might feel more like slimy toads than cats. This usage is imprecise; write what you mean.

Use think to describe the mental process of logic.

Example: I think the water is cold.

I think the bunny is soft and fuzzy.

I think mothers who aren't there when their sons break limbs should feel terribly horribly guilty.

These examples work because you can logically decipher that water is cold and bunnies are soft without touching them. You can also think about peoples' emotional reactions without actually feeling the emotions yourself.

But what about the Washington fat cats? Should we think about them? This is why we started out the discussion with believe.
Use believe to state thoughts that are unquestionable. They are convictions and values.

Example: I believe that Washington fat cats are a threat to the economy and my well being.

This sentence clearly expresses what I believe about the Washington fat cats; it leaves no room to question my thoughts on the matter.

Exceptions

Thinking and believing are closely related concepts. Grammerian Ken Smith says, "There is a hesitancy to use the word think in modern American English. Thinking, when it must be referred to, is transformed into the pretentious thought process ... think is avoided by using feel or believe" (53). Think and believe may only be separated by a matter of degree, thoughts are fleeting and beliefs are strongly held. In regard to the Washington fat cats we might say that we think about them as a threat for a moment before we move on to more happy thoughts. We think about fat cats as a threat, but we are open to abandon this thought for another. We might also say that we believe they are a threat and we will act on this belief by going to the polls and voting for a non-Washington fat cat. When we believe the threat is real, we are less apt to abandon that thought. Instead we hold tightly to.

There are no hard and fast rules for when to use think instead of believe or vice-versa. Choose the word that is closest to your degree of meaning.

The Bottom Line

If you touched the water or the bunnies or felt your stomach wrench at the sight of a child's x-rays, you are no longer following a logical process to deduce anything--you are feeling.
Feel and think are not the same. Don't interchange them in formal writing. Be a wise wordsmith, write what you mean and mean what you write.

Works Cited

Heitah. "The difference between think, feel, and believe." Everything2.com. 2006. Website last updated February 29, 2006.

Retrieved on October 20, 2008 from http://everything2.com/index.pl?node_id=1836710.

Partridge, Eric. Usage and Abusage: A guide to good English. London. Hamish Hamilton, 1957.

Shaw, Harry. Errors in English and Ways to Correct Them, (4th ed.). New York: Harper Collins Publishers, Inc. 1993.Smith, Ken. Junk English. New York: Blast Books, Inc. Publishing, 2001.
University of Chicago Press Staff. The Chicago Manual of Style: The Essential Guide for Writers, Editors, and Publishers, (15th ed.). Chicago: The

University of Chicago Press, 2003.

Wilson, Kenneth G. "believe, feel, think." Bartleby.com: Great Books online. 2008. The Columbia Guide to Standard American English. 1993. Retrieved on

October 20, 2008 from http://www.bartleby.com/68/90/790.html.

Using Dashes and Hyphens Appropriately

Balutakat — Wed, 05 Nov 2008 18:58:01 CST

Dashes and hyphens are different punctuation marks and are not interchangeable.

Em-Dashes
An em-dash or double hyphen is frequently over-applied by insecure writers. Rather like the colon, which appears in nearly every undergraduate term paper title, its use is aggravated by a false hope that more dashes will equal less confusion.

The em-dash can be an effective alternate to the use of a colon or comma, depending on the grammatical circumstances. The em-dash which replaces a colon interrupts a sentence. The use of two em-dashes within a sentence indicates interruption to the middle of a sentence by information which relates to the material immediately before the first em-dash; it would not replace parentheses, which contain information not as fundamentally bound to the sentence.

The Thomson Handbook suggests em-dash usage: "to set off material that interrupts the flow of a sentence, to emphasize appositives and examples, to set off a term's definition, to set off an aside (a personal comment), to mark a shift in tone, to indicate a hesitation or a break in dialogue, and to emphasize statements that summarize or describe a list of items" (960). The Thomson Handbook also suggests, "dashes should be used sparingly --normally you should limit yourself to one set in a paragraph" (960). Commas can be used elsewhere for the same functions, although they indicate less emphasis. A paragraph with too many dashes may appear choppy and give the impression of sensationalism.

Patricia O'Conner provides the following advice: "If a sentence has a smaller sentence within it (surrounded by dashes or parentheses), don't use a period to end the "inside" sentence: When Apu made him an offer--"I could use some help around the store"--he accepted." (135) She also suggests that, "Dashes thrive in weak writing, because when thoughts are confused, it's easier to stick in a lot of dashes than to organize a smoother sentence. Whenever you are tempted to use dashes, remember this:

Use no more than two per sentence. And if you do use two, they should act like parentheses to isolate a remark from the rest of the sentence: After the flight, Tina looked--and she'd be the first to admit it--like an unmade bed.
If the gentler and less intrusive parentheses would work as well, use them instead. Tina's luggage (complete with her return ticket) appeared to be lost." (144-145)

The following is an example of the incorrect usage of the em-dash:

With infinite slowness he raised his hand--he lifted an arm and tore off the bandage--he stood up. When I grow up I'm going to become president--climb Mt. Everest, and travel to Mars.

En-Dashes
According to Sparknotes.com, "En dashes are used to indicate a stretch of time between dates." En-dashes can be placed between two dates instead of "to" or "and". An en-dash should never be coupled with the word "from", instead use the word "to" in between the two dates. See the examples below:

Jack attended camp every summer from 1995 to 2000.

At summer camp, 1995–2000, Jack learned many annoying songs.

Between March and April, the rich kids went on skiing vacations.

March–April is skiing season for the rich kids.

En-dashes can be used "when referring to someone still alive, or something ongoing." See the examples below:

Hugh Jackman (1968– )

My high school career (2003– ) seems interminable.

Sparknotes.com also tells us that "En dashes are [. . .] used to form compounds with two-word or longer expressions." See the example below:

a pre–Civil War plantation

Hyphens

Hyphens can be used in date ranges and compound words instead of en-dashes. See the examples below:

President Bill Clinton (1993-2001) plays the saxophone.

We crossed the New Mexico-Arizona border on foot.

The hyphen is misapplied by users of word processors who avoid taking extra time to find a synonym or a less awkward way to connect two words. It is not a reliable indicator that the two words should connect. Note that "treeeyed" returns a red underline, but that "tree-eyed" does not. Does tree-eyed make any sense? Probably not, unless it's a (dubious) poetic conceit.

Hyphens have two purposes. The first purpose is to connect two or more words, such as in terms for some family members (mother-in-law), two-word descriptions (quasi-official) or fractions (two-thirds). The second purpose is to connect parts of words that have been separated at the end of a line due to space issues. According to Patricia O'Conner, the author of Woe Is I, "One of the hardest things to figure out with hyphens is how to use them in two-word descriptions." (145-146) O'Conner provides two simple guidelines on when to use hyphens. "If it's after the noun, don't use a hyphen [ . . .] If it's before the noun, use a hyphen when either of the two words in the description wouldn't make very much sense by itself." (145-146) See the examples below:

Father is strong willed.
My cousin is red haired.
This chicken is well done.
Ducks are water resistant.
He's a strong-willed father.
I have a red-haired cousin.
This is well-done chicken.
Those are water-resistant ducks.

Martha Kolln uses the examples of 'English-speaking world' and 'four-door minivan'. Here she shows "the hyphen makes clear that English modifies speaking world and that four modifies door, not minivan (176). This is the correct use of the hyphen to relate two words. She goes on to say "Another occasion for hyphens in preheadword position occurs when we use a complete phrase in the adjective slot: 'an off-the-wall idea,' 'the end-of-the-term party'" (177).

Patricia O'Conner provides the following examples in her book Woe Is I. (145-146) These examples are cases where a hyphen must always be used:

With ex (meaning "former"). Hal is the ex-president of the company.
When adding a beginning or an ending to a word that starts with a capital (anti-British, Trollope-like). Two exceptions are Christlike and Antichrist.
When adding like would create a double or triple l (shell-like).
When adding a beginning or ending would create a double vowel (ultra-average, anti-isolationist). But pre and re are often exceptions to this (preempt, reexamine), so when you have a duplicate vowel, look up the word in the dictionary. (The vowels are a,e,i,o,u.)
With fractions. Three-quarters of the brownies and two-thirds of the cookies are gone.

Geraldine Woods, the author of English Grammar for Dummies, offers "another simple rule concerning hyphens, but one that may be on the way out [. . .] If two words are being used as a single description, put a hyphen between them if the description comes before the word that it's describing." (332-334)

Works Cited

Blakesley, David and Hoogeveen, Jeffrey L. The Thomson Handbook. Boston: Thomson Wadsworth, 2007.

Dashes. SPARKNOTES. 10-28-08 <http://www.sparknotes.com/writing/style/topic_55.html>.

Kolln, Martha. Rhetorical Grammar: Grammatical Choices, Rhetorical Effects. 5th ed. New York: Pearson, 2007.

O'Conner, Patricia T. Woe is I The Grammarphobe's Guide to Better English in Plain English. New York: The Berkley Publishing Group, 2003.

Woods, Geraldine. English Grammar for Dummies. Hoboken, 2001.

Attain/Obtain

Balutakat — Wed, 05 Nov 2008 18:42:22 CST

The Difference Between Obtain and Attain

The word obtain is sometimes misused for attain, and vice versa, because of the common misconception that their meanings are synonymous. However, they are not.

Obtain can mean “(1) to get, acquire <obtain a license>; or (2) to apply; be prevalent <several unusual customs obtain in that village>” (Garner, 2003, p. 72).

Examples of correct usage:
I want to obtain a fuel-efficient car for my road trip.
Obtaining sufficient funds was a difficult task.
In order to obtain a degree in English, one must be able to write well.

Attain can mean “to achieve, accomplish <she put extraordinary effort into attaining that goal>.” It can also mean “to reach (an age)” (Garner, 2003, p. 72). Attaining something often implies some degree of difficulty or effort was required to do so (Tannenbaum, 2008). In some situations, you can also attain something you obtain. For example, to emphasize the difficulty of the achievement, you might say you "attained your degree," versus "you obtained it [your degree]" (Brians, 2008).

Examples of correct usage:
I want to attain my dreams.
Attaining perfection is not an easy task.
In order to attain the age of 21, I will have to wait three more years!

Although similar, these words clearly have separate meanings and should be used in different contexts, according to the meaning the verb should supply. Some more examples are below to help you further understand when to use obtain vs. attain.

There are many ways to attain a better understanding of the vocabulary you have already obtained and are familiar with. One is to obtain a dictionary you actually enjoy using (test several at the bookstore for heftiness and type large enough to read, standard versions versus the ones containing lots of interesting obscure words, etc.) and a thesaurus. Although attain and obtain are sometimes used interchangeably, they are separate words with separate synonyms, which might make them easier to keep straight for a budding writer or editor.

Think about how you obtain knowledge. You procure it through school, as an acquisition. You can go to school to obtain a wife or a husband, but we like to assume it's your planned objective to obtain a degree. As you decide on your word choice, consider what you buy at the store - you are getting or obtaining the contents of your grocery list.

If you were to get this degree with a great deal of effort, or achieve it as a particular goal, then you will have attained that accomplishment as you would by attaining the height of Everest, and you should be proud of yourself. Think about height, accomplishment, and effort in conjunction with attain.

Sources

Brians, P. (2008). Common Errors in English Usage [Electronic version]. Wilsonville, OR: William, James & Company. Retrieved November 4, 2008, from http://www.wsu.edu/~brians/errors/errors.html#errors

Garner, B. (2003). Garner’s Modern American Usage. New York: Oxford University Press, Inc.

Oxford Classical Dictionary (2006). 3rd. ed. Edited by Simon Hornblower and Anthony Spawforth. Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press, Inc.

Tannenbaum, R.S. (2008, April 5). Helpful Hints for Student Authors: Hint 58. Retrieved November 4, 2008, from University of Kentucky Undergraduate Education Web site: http://www.uky.edu/~rst/Hints%2050.html#HH8

That/Which

PepperAlmond — Wed, 05 Nov 2008 17:04:39 CST

"What's in a name? That which we call a rose by any other name would smell as sweet." Romeo and Juliet (II, ii, 1-2)

Similar but different
Though different, the distinction between the words that and which is rarely observed in modern English due to their similar operations. They are both relative pronouns, meaning they introduce and relate a subordinate object to the main object of a sentence. (AMA p 318) How they are used as relative pronouns differs slightly adding to the confusion of how to use the two words properly. When referring to the subordinate object the rule is as follows:

Which refers to animals and things, and can only be used in the second and third person.
That refers to a person, animal, or thing, as well as be used in first, second, or third person.

(See Chicago 5.58)

On the surface similarities such as these makes it difficult to know when to insert the proper word in a sentence. The difference comes when referring to the object in a sentence either restrictively or nonrestrictively. When referring to an object restrictively you are identifying a specific person, animal, or thing and would use the word that.

For example:

The picture, that was hanging over the fireplace, was stolen.

When referring to an object nonrestrictively you are not identifying a specific object but adding more information about the object and would use the world which.

For example:

The picture that was hanging over the fireplace, which was a priceless portrait, was stolen.

In some cases which can be used restrictively but only when preceded by a preposition.

The situation in which we found ourselves in was dangerous.

"That” restricts the reader's thought, directing attention to a specific bit of information to complete a message's meaning. “Which” is non-restrictive and introduces subsidiary rather than essential information to the meaning of the sentence. " (AMA Style p 167)

Book References

The Chicago Manual of Style: The Essential Guide for Writers, Editors, and Publishers. 15th ed. Chicago: U of Chicago P, 2003

AMA Manual of Style. Cheryl Iverson, et al. Oxford. Oxford University. 2007. Page 318.
The McGraw-Hill Style Manual. Marie Longyear. New York. 1982. Page 201. Microsoft Manual of Style for Technical Publications, 3rd edition. Microsoft Press. Redmond, Wa. 1998. Page 270.

The AMA Style Guide for Business Writing. AMACON, a DIV of American Management Association. New York. 1996. Page 167

Using Parentheses

rwillerton — Mon, 29 Sep 2008 19:21:04 CDT

Using Parentheses to Insert Information

Parentheses allow writers to insert phrases or full sentences into the flow of a larger sentence or paragraph. Fogarty says that parenthetical elements tend to be asides. They are “things you don’t need to say, but want to say anyway. They can clarify, direct, or give a sense of the writer’s frame of mind” (123).

Dashes—specifically, em-dashes— and commas may also be used to insert ideas. One difference between dashes and parentheses is that dashes are used to emphasize insertions, while parentheses serve to minimize them. (See Chicago 6.97.) As grammarian Martha Kolln writes, parentheses “say ‘By the way,’ whereas the dash says, ‘Hey, listen to this!’” (290). Another difference between dashes and parentheses is that entire sentences may be presented as asides, while dashes are not used for separate sentences. Additionally, a single dash may be used to emphasize a phrase or clause, while parentheses must be used in pairs.

Rew says to use dashes for the strongest emphasis on inserted material, commas for equal emphasis, and parentheses for reduced importance (154). Rew provides these three examples to illustrate.

Peripheral devices—monitors, printers, and keyboards—are controlled by the central processor.
The parallel port, located on the text monitor adapter card, enables the computer to be connected to the largest number of text and graphics printers.
The controller card (see Figure 3) interfaces with the processor over the B6 bus.
(Rew 154)

Writers who choose parentheses, then, should use them for asides. Dashes and commas provide emphasis. The differences among these punctuation choices are subtle, but noticeable.

Works Cited

The Chicago Manual of Style: The Essential Guide for Writers, Editors, and Publishers. 15th ed. Chicago: U of Chicago P, 2003.
Fogarty, Mignon. Grammar Girl’s Quick and Dirty Tips for Better Writing. New York: Holt, 2008.
Kolln, Martha. Rhetorical Grammar: Grammatical Choices, Rhetorical Effects. 5th ed. New York: Pearson, 2007.
Rew, Lois Johnson. Editing for Writers. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1999.

English 403 * Fall 2008 Home

rwillerton — Wed, 03 Sep 2008 15:46:20 CDT

Welcome to the wiki for ENGL 403. You must be a member of the class to add and edit content.